· Science and technology cover a wide spectrum of different activities such as basic research, applied research, experimental development, engineering, and others, all of which are terms in science and technology policy.
· Science refers to that dynamic, cumulative systems of verifiable concepts, principles, methods, laws, theories, and processes which seek to describe, understand, and predict natural phenomena; while Technology, on the other hand, refers to that dynamic, cumulative system of reproducible methods, techniques, and processes which may be derived from empirical know-how or scientific knowledge and which are used by human societies for the production, improvement, and distribution of goods and services as well as for the satisfaction of other material needs.
· Research is different from Experimental Development because Research (“R”) is the process through which scientists attempt to discover new scientific knowledge, whereas Experimental Development (“D”) is the process in which technologists utilize research findings or empirical know-how in order to devise new or improved products or processes (The distinction between research and experimental development “R & D” reflects the distinction between science and technology, because Research is what scientists do, while experimental development is part of what technologists do).
· Basic or Fundamental Research is that type of research which seeks to discover new scientific knowledge for its own sake without regard to its possible application (ex: research activities in theoretical physics; Applied Research, on the other hand, is that type of research which seeks to discover new scientific knowledge for the explicit purpose of applying it to some specific practical objective in connection with a product or process (ex: research activities in the agricultural sciences); whereas Mission-oriented Research refers to those tightly organized, time-framed, and vertically integrated R & D activities which are directed towards the attainment of a specific technological objective or mission in connection with some social, economic, political, or military goal (ex: the “Manhattan Project”, which produced the first atomic bomb, and the “Apollo Moon Project”, which landed the first man on the moon).
· Engineering refers to the processes required to make technology operative which is consists of the design, construction, and utilization of machines, equipment, installation, or processes in the production and service sectors of the economy, Technological Innovation refers to the process of assessing, selecting, evaluating, designing, adapting, testing, implementing, producing, and utilizing, and diffusing a new technology, and the Transfer of Technology refers to the process of transplanting an operative technology.
· Scientific and Technological Services (STS) cover a mixed group of activities which collect, store, process, package, and disseminate scientific and technological information or provide other auxiliary services in support of research, experimental development, and technological innovation.
· Science Education is the teaching of science and mathematics at the primary and secondary level, while Scientific Education and Training is the education and training at the university level of basic and applied scientists as well as science teachers, Technological Education and Training is the education and training at the university level of professional engineers, R & D engineers, and other technologists, Technical Education and Training is the education and training of technicians and technical teachers, and Scientific and Technological Popularization is the promotion of science consciousness among the general public through popular media presentations of scientific and technological wonders, science books and magazines for laymen, science fairs, etc.
· Advanced Technologies, Frontier Technologies, or High Technologies are terms used for the modern, sophisticated technologies which began to develop since the 1950’s out of modern research findings in the basic sciences and includes solid-state electronics, computers, cryogenics, lasers, polymers, genetic engineering, materials science, nuclear fission power, nuclear fusion power, space technology, oceanic technology, automation, and robotics; on the other hand Appropriate Technologies, Intermediate Technologies, or Alternative Technologies refer to those technologies which are low-cost, low-level in complexity, small scale, labor-intensive, suited to local materials and skills, designed for decentralized and renewable energy sources, and oriented towards rural industries.
· The two modes of Technological Innovation (the process of implanting a new technology in the production or service sectors of the economy) are:
a.) Domestic Generation and Utilization of New Technology
- This is the process in which scientific knowledge is locally developed and applied through the sequence of research, experimental, development, engineering, production or implementation, and diffusion
b.) Importation and Assimilation of Operative Technology
- This is the process of “technology transfer”, whereby an operative technology developed elsewhere is transplanted into the country through commercial or other channels
· Of crucial importance to science and technology policy is the far-reaching impact of technology transfer on overall national scientific and technological development. The impacts of technology transfer on a host LDC (Less Developed Countries) are:
(a) Technological Impacts - These are the effects on the LDCs scientific and technological development
(b) Economic Impacts - These are the effects on the LDCs trade patterns, access to markets, industrial restructuring, local infrastructure, employment, etc
(c) Socio-Cultural Impacts - These are the effects on the quality of life, consumer preferences, social mobility, lifestyles, culture, etc.,
(d) Political Impacts - These are the effects on political independence, foreign policy, composition of elites, etc.
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